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Where Did Many Families Who Left the Dust Bowl Head Off to

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1930s period of severe dust storms in North America

Map of states and counties afflicted by the Grit Basin between 1935 and 1938 originally prepared by the Soil Conservation Service. The nigh severely affected counties during this flow are colored .

The Dust Basin was a flow of severe dust storms that greatly damaged the ecology and agronomics of the American and Canadian prairies during the 1930s; severe drought and a failure to apply dryland farming methods to prevent the aeolian processes (wind erosion) acquired the miracle.[1] [2] The drought came in three waves: 1934, 1936, and 1939–1940, but some regions of the High Plains experienced drought conditions for equally many as viii years.[3]

The Dust Bowl has been the discipline of many cultural works, notably the novel The Grapes of Wrath (1939) by John Steinbeck, the folk music of Woody Guthrie, and photographs depicting the conditions of migrants by Dorothea Lange, peculiarly the Migrant Mother.

Geographic characteristics and early history

With insufficient understanding of the ecology of the plains, farmers had conducted extensive deep plowing of the virgin topsoil of the Great Plains during the previous decade; this had displaced the native, deep-rooted grasses that ordinarily trapped soil and moisture even during periods of drought and high winds. The rapid mechanization of farm equipment, specially minor gasoline tractors, and widespread use of the combine harvester contributed to farmers' decisions to convert arid grassland (much of which received no more 10 inches (~250 mm) of atmospheric precipitation per year) to cultivated cropland.[4] During the drought of the 1930s, the unanchored soil turned to dust, which the prevailing winds blew away in huge clouds that sometimes blackened the sky. These choking billows of grit – named "black blizzards" or "black rollers" – traveled cross state, reaching as far as the East Coast and hitting such cities as New York Urban center and Washington, D.C. On the plains, they frequently reduced visibility to iii ft (1 m) or less. Associated Press reporter Robert Eastward. Geiger happened to be in Boise City, Oklahoma, to witness the "Black Lord's day" black blizzards of April 14, 1935; Edward Stanley, the Kansas Urban center news editor of the Associated Press, coined the term "Dust Basin" while rewriting Geiger's news story.[v] [6]

While the term "the Dust Basin" was originally a reference to the geographical surface area afflicted past the grit, today it unremarkably refers to the outcome itself (the term "Dirty Thirties" is also sometimes used). The drought and erosion of the Dust Bowl affected 100,000,000 acres (400,000 km2) that centered on the panhandles of Texas and Oklahoma and touched adjacent sections of New United mexican states, Colorado, and Kansas.[7] The Dust Bowl forced tens of thousands of poverty-stricken families, who were unable to pay mortgages or grow crops, to abandon their farms, and losses reached $25 one thousand thousand per 24-hour interval by 1936 (equivalent to $470,000,000 in 2020).[eight] [ix] Many of these families, who were frequently known as "Okies" because and so many of them came from Oklahoma, migrated to California and other states to find that the Dandy Depression had rendered economic conditions there little better than those they had left.

The Dust Basin area lies principally west of the 100th summit on the Loftier Plains, characterized past plains which vary from rolling in the north to flat in the Llano Estacado. Elevation ranges from two,500 ft (760 m) in the east to 6,000 ft (1,800 m) at the base of operations of the Rocky Mountains. The area is semiarid, receiving less than 20 in (510 mm) of rain annually; this rainfall supports the shortgrass prairie biome originally nowadays in the area. The region is also prone to extended drought, alternating with unusual wetness of equivalent duration.[ten] During moisture years, the rich soil provides bountiful farm production, but crops fail during dry years. The region is also subject to high winds.[11] During early European and American exploration of the Slap-up Plains, this region was thought unsuitable for European-style agriculture; explorers called it the Groovy American Desert. The lack of surface h2o and timber made the region less attractive than other areas for pioneer settlement and agriculture.

The federal authorities encouraged settlement and evolution of the Plains for agronomics via the Homestead Human activity of 1862, offering settlers "quarter department" 160-acre (65 ha) plots. With the cease of the Civil War in 1865 and the completion of the Commencement Transcontinental Railroad in 1869, waves of new migrants and immigrants reached the Great Plains, and they profoundly increased the acreage under cultivation.[12] [13] An unusually moisture period in the Nifty Plains mistakenly led settlers and the federal government to believe that "rain follows the plough" (a pop phrase amidst real manor promoters) and that the climate of the region had inverse permanently.[xiv] While initial agricultural endeavors were primarily cattle ranching, the adverse consequence of harsh winters on the cattle, showtime in 1886, a short drought in 1890, and general overgrazing, led many landowners to increase the amount of state nether tillage.

Recognizing the claiming of cultivating marginal barren state, the United States government expanded on the 160 acres (65 ha) offered under the Homestead Human activity – granting 640 acres (260 ha) to homesteaders in western Nebraska under the Kinkaid Act (1904) and 320 acres (130 ha) elsewhere in the Great Plains under the Enlarged Homestead Act of 1909. Waves of European settlers arrived in the plains at the beginning of the 20th century. A return of unusually wet weather seemingly confirmed a previously held opinion that the "formerly" semiarid expanse could support large-scale agriculture. At the same time, technological improvements such as mechanized plowing and mechanized harvesting made it possible to operate larger properties without increasing labor costs.

The combined effects of the disruption of the Russian Revolution, which decreased the supply of wheat and other commodity crops, and Earth War I increased agricultural prices; this need encouraged farmers to dramatically increase cultivation. For example, in the Llano Estacado of eastern New Mexico and northwestern Texas, the area of farmland was doubled between 1900 and 1920, and then tripled once again between 1925 and 1930.[13] The agricultural methods favored by farmers during this menstruation created the conditions for large-scale erosion under certain environmental conditions.[three] The widespread conversion of the land by deep plowing and other soil grooming methods to enable agriculture eliminated the native grasses which held the soil in place and helped retain moisture during dry out periods. Furthermore, cotton farmers left fields bare during winter months, when winds in the Loftier Plains are highest, and burned the stubble as a ways to control weeds prior to planting, thereby depriving the soil of organic nutrients and surface vegetation.

Drought and grit storms

Heavy black clouds of dust rising over the Texas Panhandle, Texas, c. 1936

After adequately favorable climatic conditions in the 1920s with good rainfall and relatively moderate winters,[fifteen] which permitted increased settlement and cultivation in the Swell Plains, the region entered an unusually dry out era in the summertime of 1930.[sixteen] During the next decade, the northern plains suffered four of their 7 driest calendar years since 1895, Kansas four of its twelve driest,[17] and the unabridged region due south to Westward Texas[18] lacked whatsoever menses of above-normal rainfall until record rains hitting in 1941.[19] When severe drought struck the Great Plains region in the 1930s, it resulted in erosion and loss of topsoil because of farming practices at the time. The drought stale the topsoil and over time it became friable, reduced to a powdery consistency in some places. Without the indigenous grasses in place, the loftier winds that occur on the plains picked up the topsoil and created the massive dust storms that marked the Grit Bowl catamenia.[20] The persistent dry out conditions caused crops to fail, leaving the plowed fields exposed to current of air erosion. The fine soil of the Groovy Plains was easily eroded and carried e by strong continental winds.

On November eleven, 1933, a very strong dust storm stripped topsoil from desiccated Due south Dakota farmlands in one of a serial of severe grit storms that twelvemonth. Start on May ix, 1934, a potent, two-twenty-four hour period dust storm removed massive amounts of Great Plains topsoil in ane of the worst such storms of the Grit Bowl.[21] The dust clouds blew all the way to Chicago, where they deposited 12 million pounds of dust (~ 5500 tonnes).[22] Two days later, the same storm reached cities to the east, such as Cleveland, Buffalo, Boston, New York City, and Washington, D.C.[23] That wintertime (1934–1935), crimson snow savage on New England.

On April xiv, 1935, known as "Black Sun", twenty of the worst "black blizzards" occurred across the entire sweep of the Cracking Plains, from Canada southward to Texas. The grit storms acquired extensive damage and appeared to turn the day to night; witnesses reported that they could not see 5 feet in forepart of them at certain points. Denver-based Associated Press reporter Robert Eastward. Geiger happened to be in Boise City, Oklahoma, that solar day. His story about Black Lord's day marked the first appearance of the term Dust Bowl; information technology was coined by Edward Stanley, Kansas City news editor of the Associated Printing, while rewriting Geiger'due south news story.[5] [6]

Spearman and Hansford County take been literaly [sic] in a cloud of dust for the past week. Ever since Friday of concluding week, in that location hasn't been a twenty-four hour period pass only what the county was beseieged [sic] with a boom of air current and dirt. On rare occasions when the wind did subside for a period of hours, the air has been so filled with dust that the town appeared to be overhung by a fog cloud. Because of this long seige of grit and every building being filled with it, the air has become stifling to breathe and many people accept developed sore throats and dust colds as a result.

— Spearman Reporter, March 21, 1935[24]

Much of the farmland was eroded in the aftermath of the Dust Bowl. In 1941, a Kansas agricultural experiment station released a bulletin that suggested reestablishing native grasses by the "hay method". Developed in 1937 to speed upwardly the procedure and increase returns from pasture, the "hay method" was originally supposed to occur in Kansas naturally over 25–40 years.[25] After much information analysis, the causal machinery for the droughts tin can be linked to ocean temperature anomalies. Specifically, Atlantic Ocean ocean surface temperatures appear to have had an indirect effect on the full general atmospheric circulation, while Pacific body of water surface temperatures seem to take had the nigh direct influence.[26] [27] [1]

Homo deportation

This catastrophe intensified the economic impact of the Great Depression in the region.

In 1935, many families were forced to exit their farms and travel to other areas seeking work because of the drought (which at that time had already lasted 4 years).[28] The abandonment of homesteads and financial ruin resulting from catastrophic topsoil loss led to widespread hunger and poverty.[29] Dust Basin atmospheric condition fomented an exodus of the displaced from Texas, Oklahoma, and the surrounding Dandy Plains to adjacent regions. More than 500,000 Americans were left homeless. More 350 houses had to be torn down after 1 storm lonely.[30] The astringent drought and dust storms had left many homeless; others had their mortgages foreclosed by banks, or felt they had no choice but to carelessness their farms in search of work.[31] Many Americans migrated west looking for work. Parents packed up "jalopies" with their families and a few personal property, and headed west in search of work.[32] Some residents of the Plains, especially in Kansas and Oklahoma, fell sick and died of dust pneumonia or malnutrition.[22]

Between 1930 and 1940, approximately iii.v million people moved out of the Plains states.[34] In simply over a year, over 86,000 people migrated to California. This number is more than the number of migrants to that area during the 1849 gold rush.[35] Migrants abandoned farms in Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, Colorado, and New Mexico, just were often generally referred to as "Okies", "Arkies", or "Texies".[36] Terms such equally "Okies" and "Arkies" came to be known in the 1930s as the standard terms for those who had lost everything and were struggling the most during the Great Depression.[37]

A migratory family from Texas living in a trailer in an Arizona cotton field

Nevertheless, not all migrants traveled long distances; most migrants participated in internal state migration moving from counties that the Dust Bowl highly impacted to other less afflicted counties.[38] Then many families left their farms and were on the move that the proportion between migrants and residents was nearly equal in the Bang-up Plains states.[34]

An examination of Census Bureau statistics and other records, and a 1939 survey of occupation past the Bureau of Agricultural Economics of about 116,000 families who arrived in California in the 1930s, showed that only 43 per centum of Southwesterners were doing subcontract piece of work immediately before they migrated. Nearly one-3rd of all migrants were professional person or white-neckband workers.[39] Specifically for farmers, while some of them had to take on unskilled labor when they moved, leaving the farming sector commonly led to greater social mobility in the time to come as there was a far greater likelihood that migrant farmers would later on go into semi-skilled or high-skilled fields which paid amend. Non-farmers experienced more downward occupational moves than farmers, simply in most cases they were not significant enough to bring them into poverty, considering high-skilled migrants were most probable to experience a downward shift into semi-skilled work. While semi-skilled work did non pay as well as loftier-skilled piece of work, most of these workers were not impoverished. For the nigh part, by the stop of the Grit Bowl the migrants generally were amend off than those who chose to stay behind according to their occupational changes.[38]

Afterwards the Dandy Depression ended, some migrants moved dorsum to their original states. Many others remained where they had resettled. Near ane-eighth of California'southward population is of Okie heritage.[xl]

Government response

The profoundly expanded participation of government in land management and soil conservation was an important outcome from the disaster. Dissimilar groups took many different approaches to responding to the disaster. To place areas that needed attention, groups such equally the Soil Conservation Service generated detailed soil maps and took photos of the land from the sky. To create shelterbelts to reduce soil erosion, groups such as the United States Forestry Service's Prairie States Forestry Project planted trees on private lands. Finally, groups like the Resettlement Administration, which later became the Farm Security Administration, encouraged minor subcontract owners to resettle on other lands, if they lived in drier parts of the Plains.[i]

During President Franklin D. Roosevelt's first 100 days in office in 1933, his administration quickly initiated programs to conserve soil and restore the ecological rest of the nation. Interior Secretary Harold L. Ickes established the Soil Erosion Service in August 1933 under Hugh Hammond Bennett. In 1935, it was transferred and reorganized under the Section of Agriculture and renamed the Soil Conservation Service. Information technology is at present known as the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS).[41]

As part of New Deal programs, Congress passed the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Human action in 1936, requiring landowners to share the allocated government subsidies with the laborers who worked on their farms. Under the law, "benefit payments were connected as measures for production command and income back up, but they were at present financed by directly Congressional appropriations and justified as soil conservation measures. The Human activity shifted the parity goal from price equality of agricultural commodities and the articles that farmers buy to income equality of farm and non-farm population."[42] Thus, the parity goal was to re-create the ratio between the purchasing ability of the net income per person on farms from agronomics and that of the income of persons not on farms that prevailed during 1909–1914.

To stabilize prices, the government paid farmers and ordered more than than half dozen 1000000 pigs to be slaughtered, as part of the Agricultural Aligning Act (AAA). It paid to have the meat packed and distributed to the poor and hungry. The Federal Surplus Relief Corporation (FSRC) was established to regulate ingather and other surpluses. FDR in an address on May xiv, 1935, to the AAA commented,

Let me make i other signal clear for the do good of the millions in cities who have to buy meats. Concluding year the Nation suffered a drought of unparalleled intensity. If in that location had been no Government program, if the old order had obtained in 1933 and 1934, that drought on the cattle ranges of America and in the corn chugalug would have resulted in the marketing of thin cattle, immature hogs and the expiry of these animals on the range and on the subcontract, and if the onetime club had been in effect those years, we would accept had a vastly greater shortage than we face today. Our plan – nosotros can prove it – saved the lives of millions of head of livestock. They are however on the range, and other millions of heads are today canned and ready for this country to consume.[43]

The FSRC diverted agronomical commodities to relief organizations. Apples, beans, canned beefiness, flour and pork products were distributed through local relief channels. Cotton wool goods were later included, to clothe needy.[44]

In 1935, the federal authorities formed a Drought Relief Service (DRS) to coordinate relief activities. The DRS bought cattle in counties which were designated emergency areas, for $xiv to $xx a head. Animals determined unfit for human consumption were killed; at the first of the program, more than 50 percent were so designated in emergency areas. The DRS assigned the remaining cattle to the Federal Surplus Relief Corporation (FSRC) to exist used in food distribution to families nationwide. Although it was hard for farmers to give upward their herds, the cattle slaughter program helped many of them avoid defalcation. "The regime cattle buying program was a approving to many farmers, as they could not afford to continue their cattle, and the government paid a improve toll than they could obtain in local markets."[45]

President Roosevelt ordered the Civilian Conservation Corps to found the Bang-up Plains Shelterbelt, a huge belt of more than 200 1000000 copse from Canada to Abilene, Texas to suspension the wind, concur h2o in the soil, and hold the soil itself in place. The administration also began to educate farmers on soil conservation and anti-erosion techniques, including ingather rotation, strip farming, contour plowing, terracing, and other improved farming practices.[46] [47] In 1937, the federal government began an aggressive campaign to encourage farmers in the Dust Bowl to prefer planting and plowing methods that conserved the soil. The regime paid reluctant farmers a dollar an acre to practise the new methods. Past 1938, the massive conservation try had reduced the corporeality of blowing soil by 65%.[44] The land nevertheless failed to yield a decent living. In the autumn of 1939, later on well-nigh a decade of dirt and dust, the drought ended when regular rainfall finally returned to the region. The regime all the same encouraged continuing the use of conservation methods to protect the soil and ecology of the Plains.

At the end of the drought, the programs which were implemented during these tough times helped to sustain a positive relationship between America's farmers and the federal regime.[48]

The President's Drought Committee issued a report in 1935 roofing the government'south assistance to agriculture during 1934 through mid-1935: it discussed conditions, measures of relief, system, finances, operations, and results of the government'southward assistance.[49] Numerous exhibits are included in this study.

Long-term economic impact

In many regions, more than 75% of the topsoil was blown away by the end of the 1930s. Land degradation varied widely. Aside from the short-term economic consequences caused past erosion, there were severe long-term economic consequences caused by the Dust Bowl.

By 1940, counties that had experienced the most significant levels of erosion had a greater reject in agricultural state values. The per-acre value of farmland declined past 28% in high-erosion counties and 17% in medium-erosion counties, relative to state value changes in low-erosion counties.[25] : iii Fifty-fifty over the long-term, the agronomical value of the land frequently failed to recover to pre-Grit Bowl levels. In highly eroded areas, less than 25% of the original agronomical losses were recovered. The economy adapted predominantly through large relative population declines in more than-eroded counties, both during the 1930s and through the 1950s.[25] : 1500

The economic effects persisted, in part, because of farmers' failure to switch to more appropriate crops for highly eroded areas. Because the corporeality of topsoil had been reduced, it would take been more productive to shift from crops and wheat to animals and hay. During the Depression and through at to the lowest degree the 1950s, there was express relative adjustment of farmland away from activities that became less productive in more-eroded counties.

Some of the failure to shift to more than productive agricultural products may exist related to ignorance about the benefits of changing land employ. A 2nd caption is a lack of availability of credit, caused by the high charge per unit of failure of banks in the Plains states. Because banks failed in the Dust Bowl region at a higher rate than elsewhere, farmers could not get the credit they needed to obtain upper-case letter to shift crop production.[l] In addition, profit margins in either animals or hay were still minimal, and farmers had little incentive in the beginning to alter their crops.

Patrick Allitt recounts how young man historian Donald Worster responded to his render visit to the Grit Bowl in the mid-1970s when he revisited some of the worst afflicted counties:

Capital-intensive agribusiness had transformed the scene; deep wells into the aquifer, intensive irrigation, the use of artificial pesticides and fertilizers, and giant harvesters were creating immense crops year later year whether information technology rained or not. According to the farmers he interviewed, technology had provided the perfect answer to quondam troubles, such of the bad days would not return. In Worster's view, by contrast, the scene demonstrated that America'south capitalist high-tech farmers had learned nothing. They were continuing to piece of work in an unsustainable way, devoting far cheaper subsidized energy to growing food than the energy could give back to its ultimate consumers.[51]

In contrast with Worster's cynicism, historian Mathew Bonnifield argued that the long-term significance of the Dust Bowl was "the triumph of the human spirit in its chapters to endure and overcome hardships and reverses."[52]

Influence on the arts and civilization

"Dust basin farmers of due west Texas in town", photo by Dorothea Lange, June 1937.

The crunch was documented by photographers, musicians, and authors, many hired during the Great Low past the federal government. For instance, the Subcontract Security Assistants hired numerous photographers to document the crunch. Artists such as Dorothea Lange were aided by having salaried work during the Depression.[53] She captured what accept go classic images of the dust storms and migrant families. Among her nearly well-known photographs is Destitute Pea Pickers in California. Female parent of Seven Children,[53] which depicted a gaunt-looking adult female, Florence Owens Thompson, holding three of her children. This motion picture expressed the struggles of people caught past the Dust Bowl and raised sensation in other parts of the land of its reach and homo price. Decades later, Thompson disliked the boundless circulation of the photo and resented the fact she did not receive whatsoever money from its broadcast. Thompson felt it gave her the perception as a Grit Bowl "Okie."[54]

The work of contained artists was also influenced by the crises of the Dust Bowl and the Low. Author John Steinbeck, borrowing closely from field notes taken by Farm Security Administration worker and author Sanora Babb,[55] wrote The Grapes of Wrath (1939) well-nigh migrant workers and subcontract families displaced past the Grit Bowl. Babb's ain novel about the lives of the migrant workers, Whose Names Are Unknown, was written in 1939 merely was eclipsed and shelved in response to the success of Steinbeck's work, and was finally published in 2004.[56] [57] [58] Many of the songs of folk singer Woody Guthrie, such every bit those on his 1940 anthology Dust Basin Ballads, are almost his experiences in the Dust Bowl era during the Neat Depression when he traveled with displaced farmers from Oklahoma to California and learned their traditional folk and blues songs, earning him the nickname the "Dust Basin Troubadour".[59]

Migrants likewise influenced musical culture wherever they went. Oklahoma migrants, in particular, were rural Southwesterners who carried their traditional country music to California. Today, the "Bakersfield Audio" describes this blend, which adult after the migrants brought country music to the city. Their new music inspired a proliferation of land dance halls equally far south as Los Angeles.

The 2014 science fiction film Interstellar features a ravaged 21st-century America which is again scoured by dust storms (caused by a worldwide pathogen affecting all crops). Along with inspiration from the 1930s crisis, director Christopher Nolan features interviews from the 2012 documentary The Dust Basin to depict further parallels.[60]

In 2017, Americana recording artist Grant Maloy Smith released the album Dust Bowl – American Stories, which was inspired by the history of the Dust Bowl.[61] In a review, the music mag No Depression wrote that the album's lyrics and music are "as strong as Woody Guthrie, as intense as John Trudell and dusted with the trials and tribulations of Tom Joad – Steinbeck and The Grapes of Wrath."[62]

Changes in agronomics and population on the Plains

Agricultural land and revenue boomed during Earth State of war I, but fell during the Groovy Low and the 1930s.[63] [ verification needed ] The agronomical country that was worst affected by the Dust Bowl was 16 million acres (6.five million hectares) of land by the Texas and Oklahoma panhandles. These 20 counties that the U.S. Department of Agriculture'due south Soil Conservation Service identified every bit the worst wind-eroded region were domicile to the majority of the Great Plains migrants during the Dust Bowl.[64]

While migration from and betwixt the Southern Great Plain States was greater than migration in other regions in the 1930s, the numbers of migrants from these areas had but slightly increased from the 1920s. Thus, the Dust Bowl and Cracking Depression did not trigger a mass exodus of southern migrants, it just encouraged these migrants to keep moving where in other areas the Dandy Depression limited mobility due to economic problems, decreasing migration. While the population of the Not bad Plains did fall during the Grit Basin and Great Depression, the drop was non caused by farthermost numbers of migrants leaving the Great Plains but because of a lack of migrants moving from outside of the Bang-up Plains into the region. [64]

See also

  • 1936 Due north American heat wave
  • Desertification
  • Goyder's Line – semiarid area of Australia
  • Global warming
  • List of environmental disasters
  • Monoculture
  • Ogallala Aquifer
  • Palliser's Triangle – semiarid expanse of Canada
  • Semi-arid climate
  • Tragedy of the commons
  • U.S. Road 66 – notable Grit Bowl migration route to California
  • Navajo Livestock Reduction – simultaneous plan to foreclose overgrazing and erosion

References

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  34. ^ a b Worster, Donald (1979). Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930s . Oxford University Press. p. 49.
  35. ^ Worster, Donald. Dust Basin – The Southern Plains in the 1930s, New York: Oxford University Press, 2004, p. fifty
  36. ^ "Kickoff Measured Century: Interview:James Gregory". PBS. Archived from the original on July xviii, 2018. Retrieved March 11, 2007.
  37. ^ Worster (2004), Dust Bowl, p. 45,
  38. ^ a b Long, Jason; Siu, Henry (2018). "Refugees from Dust and Shrinking Country: Tracking the Dust Basin Migrants". The Journal of Economic History. 78 (four): 1001–1033. doi:10.1017/S0022050718000591. ISSN 0022-0507.
  39. ^ Gregory, N. James. (1991) American Exodus: The Dust Basin Migration and Okie Civilisation in California. Oxford Academy Press.
  40. ^ Babb, et al. (2007), On the Dirty Plate Trail, p. 13
  41. ^ Steiner, Frederick (2008). The Living Landscape, 2d Edition: An Ecological Approach to Mural Planning, p. 188. Isle Printing. ISBN i-59726-396-6.
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  48. ^ A Cultural History (1999), p.45.
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  51. ^ Patrick Allitt, A Climate of Crisis: America in the Age of Environmentalism (2014) p 203
  52. ^ Allitt p 211, paraphrasing William Cronin's evaluation of Mathew Paul Bonnifield, Dust Bowl: Men, Clay and Low(1979)
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  58. ^ See:
    • Lanzendorfer, Joy, "The forgotten Dust Bowl novel that rivaled 'The Grapes of Wrath'" Archived December 28, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, Smithsonian.com, 2016 May 23.
    • "Sanora Babb" Archived March 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, The Dust Basin: a film by Ken Burns, PBS.org (2012)
    • For the part of Tom Collins of the Farm Security Administration in Steinbeck's novel, see: John Steinbeck with Robert Demott, ed., Working Days: The Journals of The Grapes of Wrath, 1938–1941 (New York, New York: Penguin Books, 1990), pp. xxvii–xxviii Archived April 29, 2021, at the Wayback Machine, 33 (journal entry for 1938 June 24). Archived April 29, 2021, at the Wayback Motorcar
  59. ^ Alarik, Scott. Robert Burns unplugged. Archived March 4, 2016, at the Wayback Automobile The Boston Earth, August vii, 2005. Retrieved on December five, 2007.
  60. ^ Rosenberg, Alyssa (November 6, 2014). "How Ken Burns' surprise role in 'Interstellar' explains the movie". The Washington Mail service. Archived from the original on November viii, 2014. Retrieved Nov 8, 2014.
  61. ^ Smith, Hubble (June ane, 2017). "Kingman gets a mention on Dust Bowl album". Kingman Daily Miner. Archived from the original on October ten, 2017. Retrieved June 11, 2017.
  62. ^ Apice, John (May 22, 2017). "Expressive Original Songs Steeped In the Dirt & Reality of the Grit Basin-Depression Era". No Low. Archived from the original on July six, 2017. Retrieved June xi, 2017.
  63. ^ Hornbeck, Richard (2012). "The Enduring Impact of the American Dust Bowl: Short and Long-run Adjustments to Environmental Catastrophe". American Economical Review. 102 (four): 1477–1507. doi:x.1257/aer.102.iv.1477. Archived from the original on Baronial 19, 2021. Retrieved Nov 9, 2018.
  64. ^ a b Long, Jason; Siu, Henry (2018). "Refugees from Dust and Shrinking State: Tracking the Dust Bowl Migrants". The Journal of Economic History. 78 (iv): 1001–1033. doi:10.1017/S0022050718000591. ISSN 0022-0507.

Bibliography

  • Bonnifield, Mathew Paul. (1979) Dust Bowl: Men, Dirt and Depression
  • Cunfer, Geoff. (2008) "Scaling the Dust Bowl" Archived Feb 26, 2021, at the Wayback Auto, Placing history: How maps, spatial data, and GIS are changing historical scholarship, ESRI Press, Redlands.
  • Gregory, James Noble. American exodus: The grit bowl migration and Okie culture in California (Oxford University Printing, 1989)
  • Lassieur, Allison. (2009) The Dust Bowl: An Interactive History Run a risk Archived April 10, 2021, at the Wayback Machine Capstone Press, ISBN ane-4296-3455-iii
  • Reis, Ronald A. (2008) The Grit Bowl Archived April 29, 2021, at the Wayback Automobile Chelsea House ISBN 978-0-7910-9737-3
  • Sylvester, Kenneth Chiliad., and Eric S. A. Rupley, "Revising the Dust Bowl: High above the Kansas Grassland", Ecology History, 17 (July 2012), 603–33.
  • Worster, Donald 2004 (1979)Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930s Archived April xxx, 2021, at the Wayback Car (25. ceremony ed) Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-nineteen-517489-5
  • Woody Guthrie, (1963) The (Nearly) Complete Collection of Woody Guthrie Folk Songs, Ludlow Music, New York.
  • Alan Lomax, Woody Guthrie, Pete Seeger, (1967) Hard-Hitting Songs for Hard-Hit People, Oak Publications, New York.
  • Timothy Egan (2006) The Worst Hard Fourth dimension Archived December xix, 2019, at the Wayback Automobile, Houghton Mifflin Company, New York, hardcover. ISBN 0-618-34697-10.
  • Katelan Janke, (1935) Survival in the Tempest: The Dust Bowl Diary of Grace Edwards, Dalhart, Texas, Scholastic (September 2002). ISBN 0-439-21599-4.
  • Karen Hesse (paperback Jan 1999) Out of the Dust, Scholastic Signature. New York Starting time Edition, 1997, hardcover. ISBN 0-590-37125-viii.
  • Sanora Babb (2004) Whose Names Are Unknown Archived October 11, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, Academy of Oklahoma Press, ISBN 978-0-8061-3579-three.
  • Sweeney, Kevin Z. (2016). Prelude to the Dust Bowl: Drought in the Nineteenth-Century Southern Plains Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Printing.

Documentary films

  • 1936 – The Plough That Broke the Plains – 25 minutes, directed by Pare Lorentz
  • 1998 – Surviving the Grit Bowl – 52 minutes, season x episode of American Feel documentary tv series
  • 2012 – The Dust Bowl – 240 minutes, 4 episodes, directed past Ken Burns

External links

  • Media related to Grit Bowl at Wikimedia Commons
  • The Dust Bowl photo collection
  • "The Dust Bowl", a PBS television series by filmmaker Ken Burns
  • The Dust Bowl (EH.Net Encyclopedia)
  • Black Sunday, Apr 14, 1935, Contrivance Urban center, KS
  • The Bibliography of Aeolian Research
  • Voices from the Grit Bowl: The Charles 50. Todd and Robert Sonkin Migrant Worker Collection, 1940–1941 Library of Congress, American Folklife Middle Online collection of archival sound recordings, photographs, and manuscripts
  • Farming in the 1930s (Wessels Living History Farm)
  • Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture – Dust Bowl
  • Dust, Drought, and Dreams Gone Dry: Oklahoma Women in the Dust Basin Oral History Projection, Oklahoma Oral History Enquiry Programme
  • Voices of Oklahoma interview with Frosty Troy. First person interview conducted on November 30, 2011 with Frosty Troy talking about the Oklahoma Grit Bowl. Original audio and transcript archived with Voices of Oklahoma oral history project.
  • Dust Bowl – Ken Burns playlist on YouTube
  • Grit Bowl – Ken Burns playlist on YouTube

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_Bowl

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